GINGEROL: a Marker Compound in Ginger

by Godras Jati Manuhara
from Department of Food Science and Technology, Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia


Name and structure
The IUPAC name for the gingerol is (S) -5-Hydroxy-1- (4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) -3-decanone. This compound is available in the form of 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, and 10-gingerol (Wang et.al. 2012). Gingerols are unstable substances towards heating (drying, distillation, steaming, etc.). The structure of gingerols enable dehydration reaction to shogaol, for example 6-gingerol is dehydrated into 6-shogaol (Zhang et al. 1994).

Botanical source and concentration of gingerol
Gingerol can be found specifically in some parts of the Zingiber genus, especially fresh rhizomes. There are many varieties of ginger plants that have been examined for gingerol, including Z. officinale and Z. cornubracteatum (Kantayos & Paisooksantivatana, 2012).
Ginger plants are cultivated in various regions with different soil and climate conditions. Differences in cultivation factors affect the size, shape, amount of fiber, juiciness, and flavor (Attokaran, 2017). According to the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTATD), the main ginger producing countries, respectively, are India, Nigeria, China, Indonesia, Nepal and Thailand, with total production in 2016 reaching 3,270,762 tonnes. India contributed the most production (33.9%) of the total production.
Young et al. (2002) reported that parts of the ginger plant such as leaves, rhizomes (as a whole), rhizome skin, and buds of ginger contained 6-gingerol with different levels. Ginger rhizome skin contains 6-gingerol more than ginger buds. Rhizome and ginger rhizome skin have 6-gingerol 1.67 times more than ginger buds and 39.0 times more than ginger leaves. The level of 6-gingerol in ginger skin is 0.823 mg / g fresh weight and in ginger rhizome is 0.806 mg / g fresh weight. Therefore, removing ginger skin may reduce the yield and quality of essential oils.
Varieties affect the content of gingerol in the ginger rhizome. Z. officinale rhizome extract showed 6-gingerol content was 255.35 to 291.78 mg/kg while Z. cornubracteatum was 63,032 to 68,418 mg/kg. Interesting results showed that of several species of the genus Zingiber (Z. montanum, Z. ottensii, Z. rubens, Z. zerumbet, Zingiber 'Phlai-chompoo', Z. bisectum, Z. spectabile, and Z. barbatum) were not detected level of 6-gingerol. The level of gingerol that is too low is thought to be the cause (Kantayos & Paisooksantivatana, 2012). Baranowski (1985) reported 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerol in Queensland ginger, sequentially present in a ratio of 4: 1: 2, while gingerol in Hawaiian ginger, respectively, is in the ratio 7: 1: 2 to 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerol. Thus, the relative content of 6-gingerol in Hawaiian ginger is higher than in Queensland ginger, but the relative content of 8- and 10-gingerol is the same as that of Queensland ginger.
Long storage and use of heat in processing such as blanching, steaming, drying, distillation, and paste processing are reported to reduce the concentration of gingerol in products of ginger. Gingerol will dehydrate to shogaol, depending on the initial structure. For example, 6-gingerol will dehydrate to 6-shogaol. (Baranowski, 1985; Baladdin et al. 1996, Baladdin et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 1994).

Biosynthesis
Research on gingerol biosynthesis was been carried out a long time ago. Denniff et al. (1980) have examined the biosynthesis of 6-gingerol in Zingiber officinale plants and parts of their rhizomes. They concluded from that phenylalanine is elaborated to ferullic acid which is then condensed through the Claisen reaction, with hexanoate and malonate to produce 6-dehydrogingerdione. This last compound (6-dehidrogingerdione) is reduced into 6-gingerol through two stages. The 6-gingerol biosynthesis can be seen in Figure 3.

Importance and use in food
In fresh ginger, the pungency is mainly caused by 6-gingerol. The pungent flavor combined with the distinctive aroma of ginger makes ginger one of the most recognized spices in the world, both in the West and East. However, during processing withheat and storage, shogaol is formed as a gingerol dehydrated product. Decreasing the concentration of gingerol in the product of ginger might cause a decrease in panelist acceptance of the product. This is presumably because based on the sensory analysis towards pure compounds and crude extract, that showed shogaol to have a higher pungent taste than the original gingerol (Baranowski, 1985). Therefore, gingerol has also been recommended as a chemical marker for quality control of fresh ginger, because higher levels of gingerol indicate freshness of ginger. Testing of 6-gingerol content can also be accepted as an indicator for the level of pungency of fresh ginger (Mishra et al., 2004; Jolad, et al., 2005). Gingerol also plays an important role in inhibiting the growth of E. coli and B. subtilis bacteria, while the antioxidant ability comes from the content of gingerol and shogaol (Uhl, 2000). Gingerol was also reported to demonstrate antiemetic, antipyretic, analgesic, antiarthritic, and anti inflammatory activities (Mishra et al. 2012).

References
Attokaran, M. (2017). Natural food flavors and colorants (2nd edition.). Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.
Balladin, D.A., Yen, I.A., McGaw, D.R., and Headly, O. (1996) . Solar drying of West Indian ginger (Zingiber officinalle Roscoe) rhizome using a wire basket dryer. Renewable Energy 7: 409 – 418
Balladin, D.A., dan Headley, O. (1997). Extraction and evaluation of the main pungent principles of solaar dried West Indian ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) rhizome. Renewable Energy 12: 125 – 130.
Baranowski, J.D. (1985). Storage stability of a processed ginger paste. Journal of Food Science 50: 932 – 933
Denniff, P., Macleod, I., & Whiting, D. (1980). Studies in the biosynthesis of [6]-gingerol, pungent principle of ginger (Zingiber officinale). Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1: 2637–2644.
Jolad, S.D., Lantz, R.C., Chen, G.J., Bates, R.B., Timmermann, B.N. (2005). Commercially processed dry ginger (Zingiber officinale). Phytochemistry 66: 1614 – 1635.
Kantayos, V., & Paisooksantivatana, Y. (2012). Antioxidant Activity and Selected Chemical Components of 10 Zingiber spp. in Thailand. Journal of Developments in Sustainable Agriculture, 7: 89–96.
Mishra, B., Gautam, S., & Sharma, A. (2004). Shelf-life extension of fresh ginger (Zingiber officinale) by gamma irradiation. Journal of Food Science, 69(9): M274-M279.
Mishra, R.K., Kumar, A., & Kumar, A. (2012). Pharmacological activity of Zingiber officinale. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Chemical Sciences 1: 1422 – 1427.
Uhl, S.R. (2000). Spices, Seasonings, dan Flavorings. Technomic Publ. Co. Inc., Lancaster – Basel. Young, H.Y., Chiang, C.T., Huang, Y.L., Pan, F.P., Chen, G.L. (2002). Analyical and stability studies of ginger preparations. J.Food and Drug Analysis 10: 149 – 153.
Zhang, X. Iwaoka, W. T., Huang, A. S., Nakamoto, S. T., R. Wong. (1994). Gingerol decreases after processing and storage of ginger. Journal of Food Science 6: 1338 – 1340.

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Cinnamaldehyde, major component of cinnamon bark essential oil

Cinnamon bark have spicy, sweet, and woody aroma. It is widely used as a flavoring agent in many foods. In Indonesia, people use it as important ingredient for "kolak", a type of dessert or an appetizer that is often served during iftar, made from coconut milk and banana. It gives a delicious aroma. So what exactly is the major component of cinnamon bark essential oil and what is its impact on the aroma? As in other Southeast Asian countries, such as the form of raw cinnamon bark, is more widely used in traditional Indonesian food , rather than the form of essential oil. This plant has been cultivated as a commercial crop in this country since the occupation period of the Dutch East Indies. Even the major export is in the form of dried cinnamon bark (95 %), the rest is powder. Depending on the type of raw material, it shows distinctly different characteristics. It has a major component that gives a distinctive character. The major component of cinnamon bark essential oil is cinnamaldehyde. Beside that, it contains α - pinene, α - phellandrene, β - phellandrene, (E)- caryophillene, (E)-cinnamyl acetate, benzaldehyde, coumarin, linalool, safrole, 1,8-cineole and sometimes eugenol in varying amounts. Cinnamaldehyde gives pungent aroma and flavor to cinnamon bark essential oil. Therefore, the product of Cinnamomum cassia varieties, which showed high cinnamaldehyde content, has a pungent aroma, so that these varieties are used as raw materials of drugs. While the essential oil of Cinnamomum zeylanicum has a soft flavor because of its low cinnamaldehyde levels. In foods, the major component of cinnamon bark essential oil may act as antioxidant and antimicrobial agent.

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Get rid of oily skin by essential oils

In order to get rid of oily skin by essential oils, you can use them through massage or by consuming herbal infusion. Having skin that tends to secrete certain fluids is going to make us a little miffed, especially if it will make us less interesting, with shiny face, dust or dirt that is often attached to its pores and can cause acne. Although there have been many types or brands of cosmetics that can reduce this, such as facial foam and sunblock cream, of course you should try natural solution.
There are many causes of oily skin. Poor diet that is too much fat in the body that come from eating food which is high in fat and sweetness. Hormonal factors could be the one, such as a hormonal imbalance during puberty could be a trigger. The application of the wrong type of cosmetics can increase these problems. Heredity can also be said to be a factor, usually the parents who have such problems, would be passed on to their children as well. The influence of certain drugs can also affect this disorder.
So how to get rid of oily skin by essential oils ? You can use a mixture consisting of oil of ylang (20 drops) and basal (50 ml), or with lemon (10 drops), ylang 10 (10), and basal (50 milliliters). Recipes can be used through massage therapy. To overcome the problem of the pores widening, make the recipe with oil of lemongrass (5 drops), patchouli (5), ylang (10), and basal (50 ml).
The natural ways mentioned above need to know because most people will choose to fight these conditions directly by attempting to remove the liquid on the face at all, for example, using harsh soaps with high concentrations of alkali. Unfortunately, this way often show effect on skin health disorder and even worsen the situation. The oil produced by the sebaceous glands useful to help lubricate our skin and helps maintain moisture. If someone washes his or her oily face to often, it turned into dry, scaly, and even cause itching. It will also stimulate the sebaceous glands to produce more oil and lead into a condition called reactive seborrhea. This will make your glands work excessively and a malfunction rise in the future. If you want to find a facial soap, better avoid soaps that contain alcohol. You should choose a soap that contains natural ingredients, such as essential oils, olive, almond or avocado oil. They all have a deep absorption function which will help the cells or tissue regeneration and retain moisture. Rinse your oily face with warm water, not hot water. It is important to stop the excess oil, but not eliminate them all. Hot water makes soap removes oil and dirt and also speed up the whole process, but it also turn the oily skin to be dry and scaly. It is also important not to scrub face excessively, it also causes moisturizing oil disappear. Soft and slow movements is important when washing it. Washing it with a gentle foaming just once a day is enough to remove the dirt. Notice the material contained in the moisturizer, whether they fit with your skin or not. If they contain chemicals or synthetic, they may stimulate allergic reactions, dehydration, and even acne. In fact, if this does not fit with yours, it will lead to excessive oil secretion that you want to avoid.
In addition to essential oils, there are traditional herbs that have the similar benefit. This is more efficient and natural. In this case, the celery is quite powerful. It treat high blood pressure, and also overcome oily skin. This is known as Apium graveolens that you can find in the market or in your home garden. It is well known to our ears because its leaves are often used in a variety of cuisines, and is also useful as a health remedy. Take celery leaves then cut into small pieces. The pieces are put into a pot that has been filled with boiling water, and let stand for 15-20 minutes in length, and then leave it to cool down (20-30 minutes). Apply the cold steeping water to the entire face, let it penetrate into your body surface till dry. Then it can be cleaned with fresh water. Use it every 2 days to get maximum results. However, if you want a more practical solution, you can get rid of oily skin by essential oils that have been mixed with moisturizing gel (gel-based moisturizer).

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Benefits of essential oils for skin

Benefits of essential oils for skin may be indirectly, such as having calming effect so that that can reduce stress. With less stress, then it will be more healthy. Some methods are often carried them in the form of massage and water therapy. They also has properties of fat-soluble, easily absorbed into the our surface layers and the other that lie underneath (subcutaneous) when it is applied or rub.
Skin care can be done by inhaling the their sweet aroma which is one way to aromatherapy. Another innovative applications by applying these volatile materials to human outer layer which has been prepared correctly with the right dose for massage, bath and air freshener. Their structure makes them easily absorbed in a layer of protective fat in the body surface.
Some of them are known from the research results contain antibacterial or anti microbial so that benefits of essential oils for skin is as a cleanser, such as for the face. The antioxidant activity in several types of them also play an important role to prevent cell damage or aging. It can also affect the nerve impulses and reflexes were received by the ends of nerve receptors in the outer layer, beneath the epidermis.
Although they have many benefits, in order not to cause side effects, it is better before it is used, they need to be tested first on the skin or outer sleeve. They should not be given to infants because of their high level of sensitivity and they are relatively weak, except for the aims to keep them warm, but of course with low-dose. You should avoid the use of this material when you are experiencing a rash or hives that the contributing factor can not be known to prevent the disorder getting worse.
It is essential to be remembered that the oils should not be given when you have a lot of varicose veins, as it can interfere with blood circulation system in the vicinity. Do not apply massage therapy to the body which is recovered from the wound or body just sunburn in order to avoid physical stress and physiological trauma patients.

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Cape jasmine essential oil

Cape jasmine essential oil contains linalol and styrolyl compounds. While the fruit from this plant is known to contain crocin (a type of natural carotenoid which is found in the flowers of crocus and gardenia), having bright yellow color as well as on saffron. These include in Rubiaceae familia. It is usually grown by Javanese people as an ornamental bush, cultivated in front of or next to the home page, in order to beautify the yard.
Cape jasmine or Gardenia jasminoides or Gardenia augusta (in Latin name) is a flower that has a distinctive aroma and grow in the tropics. Its origin may be from Asia and it is widely grown in Indonesia/INA, Vietnam, southern China, Formosa (one of the Taiwan provinces), Japan and India. Other names are ceplok piring, cepiring, peciring (Java), buah patah, buah batek, buah kuning, bunga susu (INA). Its cultivation is carried out by cultivating the trunk rod cutting. The rod cutting having 3 to 4 segment is very good for this purpose. It requires high humidity to grow the flowers. The are blooming in summer. Research experts revealed that these flowers have cape jasmine essential oil. According to Benita Nofritasari and Suhardjono of Faculty of Medicine Diponegoro University in Semarang, INA, its leaves has long been used by the domestic people as an antidiabetic traditional medicinal plant. Giving infuse of cape jasmine leaves at a certain dose can reduce blood glucose levels significantly. Dosage gardenia leaves in adult humans (50 kg) is 12 gardenia leaves which is equivalent with 10 grams.
Extraction by using PE (petroleum ether with the process is almost the same as the other flowers oil distillation gave 0.07% yield, specific gravity 1.009 (heavier than water), and optical rotation +1.47. That led to their last name of jasminoides is the identical marker compound: benzyl acetate. In addition, their other chemical constituents include: stryroyl acetate, linalol, linalyl acetate, terpeneneol, methyl anthranilate, lactone, gamma-decalactone, ocimene and tiglic acid. Unlike roses which can be used in food or drink, the essential oil produced from cape jasmine has toxic properties that are less safe or not recommended. The effect is calming and the price is more expensive than the rosa damascena, because it is quite difficult to get the material. This is a seasonal crop. INA has the potential to develop, but once again, they are facing competition from overseas markets especially China and India.

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Essential oils for dry skin

You should try to use essential oils for dry skin, especially if you're in the hot weather, due to its nutraceutical compounds. This types are commonly very sensitive to weather conditions. If it is not addressed well, it will be chapped and flaky. It can happen due to dehydration. This problem, of course, kick you away from your dream to become as beautiful as Anne Hathaway.
To solve it, you should use moisturizers that is made from sunflower seed, almond, jojoba, avocado or rice bran oil. These are easily absorbed either partially or completely by human body surface. This can usually be found in soap, body lotions, and scrubs. Sometimes they are also in the form of creams and foams. In addition to using commercial moisturizers, you should also use a variety of natural ways such as using essential oils for dry skin or following these tips. First, drink water. You must know about the fact that we should drink at least eight (8) glasses a day. And this is really effective to help to overcome this problem. It is not only good for your health, but also help your surface to be wet enough. Second, stop your habit to smoke. This is an effect as a cause of decreased moisture on the surface of our bodies. The nicotine content in cigarettes can narrow the blood vessels that make the cells become increasingly difficult to obtain the necessary nutrients. Third, avoid treatments that use alcoholic materials. It makes the skin become dry and scaly. It is also lift oils that serves as a natural moisturizer. Fourth, take a bath with cold water. Shower at night after activity can certainly help relax the mind and body. However, warm water break the fat as the barriers for humidity. That cause skin prone to be dry. Therefore, avoid it too often.
Lavender, iris, jasmine, rose, ylang-ylang", and chamomile can be used for the treatment using essential oils to avoid dry skin. The latter material is known to contain compounds that help to cleanse the pores from dirt as well as for tissue regeneration. To make a simple natural moisturizer, mix or add the olive oil into one of the above essential extract. Next, mix with warm water and use it to compress your face for 5-10 minutes. Olive extracts contain polyphenols and vitamin E which acts to protect our body from damage by free radicals and ultraviolet light exposure.

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Essential oil for aromatherapy

The uses of essential oil for aromatherapy is considered to be a technique of alternative medicine. This practice is expected that can help to prevent or cure diseases. The material used is a concentrated liquid that has a very distinctive smell. These are generally named after the plant from which it is extracted, for example peppermint oil. In the treatment, one kind is used together with other types. In addition, massage can be performed with some aspects of this technique to help to get a higher level of relaxation. With this essential substances, human mood will be affected.
Pampering our body with aromatherapy is no longer new. However, there are many things to consider in connection with this technique. This is often interpreted as any kind of healing using a variety of fragrance. In fact, detergent or floor deodorant or deodorizer is often grouped to be part of one of alternative medicine types. However, it is not easy to say that all of the fragrances application fall into that category. It is a healing technique using essential oil by inhaled, drunk, smeared, or massaged.
Aromatherapy benefit is not just for beauty care or relax the body. There are other, more noble functions, i.e. curing the body from diseases. But not all fragrances has healing effect. The essential materials from purified and freshly herb or spices plant parts can improve human health level. The services given by most beauty centers is not for treatment, but simply relaxing and refreshing. Not everyone fits with all of the volatile oil. They also do not take the proper dosage into account. For respiratory complaints and emotions, for example, the best way is by inhalation. For gastrointestinal complaints, it is better to take the essential oil for aromatherapy orally (but it needs recommendation or recipes from the expert). As for the cases of the skin and balance the functions of organs, it is proper with basting plus massage. To be on target, this is should be performed under the supervision of people who have a basic knowledge of medicine, or people who had already studied aromatherapy in particular. Because it use the product of nature, then this is considered to be one way of back to nature. Since the first, the plant extract has been used in the treatment and smells are used to soothe the soul. Currently, experts are conducting research development for hidden benefits contained in these materials for use in the healthcare field to reduce the application of synthetic drugs which showed side effects in several cases. Many results of those studies represented promising evidence.
This oil enter the human body through aromatherapy and the sense of smell come through the skin and then headed into a vein. Furthermore it goes into the limbic system / olfactory system in the brain. Limbic system is related to memory, breathing, blood circulation, endocrine glands. The compounds contained in this volatile substance will stimulate this system. Some of them can also be used as an oral medication, but this method requires the use of a trained guide or expert. However it is important to remember, even though it has many benefits, it does not mean safe. It needs directions and specific instructions of experts to use essential oil for aromatherapy orally or when used in pregnant women or in patients with epilepsy, heart disease and asthma.

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Essential oils for depression

Several studies actually had tested the use of essential oils for depression. So this is a natural way that you can do yourself at home. Thus, we should consider how to help calm our minds independently, in the same time, try to reduce reliance on mental health advisor as well as sedative drugs.
To overcome this problem, you should try to fill an emptiness in life that make a person feel lonely and lost purpose in life, for example, by helping the poor, neighbors who are hurting, or closer to God or fill your life with spiritual activity that you believe. By other way, some essential oils can help reduce symptoms. The content of certain compounds in these materials, such as eugenol, can affect the central nervous system, demonstrate antidepressant effects by inhibiting the MAO-A enzyme, thereby reducing the degradation of amine neurotransmitters.Depression is a mental illness and can get worse if not treated seriously. Some sufferers even is a rich, have high social status, and famous. It is different from stress. It is heavier than the latter. It is difficult to be detected medically. Physical symptoms usually include nausea while eating, abdominal pain, feeling headache without cause, etc. According to WHO, it ranks as the fourth most common disease in the world. Their impact is quite large, ranging from decreasing productivity, drug addiction, disruptions in one's interpersonal relationships, various illness, to suicide cases which continue to grow from year to year.
The use of essential oils for depression such as bergamot, basil, hops, chamomile, rose, patchouli, citronella scented, lavender, and ylang-ylang may help to overcome them. This can be performed by heating them through the brazier and aromatherapy candles, so that aroma vapor can be enjoyed while relaxing. You can also enjoy the aroma of a blend of jasmine, nutmeg and neroli. This mixture is a formula for antidepressant or antistress. For all night's sleep therapeutic, you can use the recipe that is mixed with a carrier material in small doses.
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